Studying Japanese as a native speaker of English can seem so impossible that it’s easy to lose sight of the fact that there are ways that Japanese is actually simpler than a lot of languages. One thing that shows this very well is Japanese verb tenses, and how there are hardly any that you have to really worry about. Maybe we forget this because the verb tenses that do exist seem to make up for it by being awfully complicated. The past tense ending is easy when you add it to a stem that ends in a vowel: it’s just -ta. Taberu in past tense becomes tabeta, what could be simpler? If only that were all there was to it. As you’ll know if you’ve dabbled in verbs and tenses, you also have to deal with verbs like these, where a lot more wacky stuff is going on:

• shinu – shinda
• yomu – yonda
• yobu – yonda
• kaku – kaita
• kagu – kaida
• kasu – kashita

In fact, these patterns actually do make some sense, if you’re enough of a language geek to get into the details. In this guide, you’ll learn about how consonants are produced and about the rules restricting the type of Japanese syllables – and how together, these explain the patterns in the past tense that you thought was just crazy irregular junk that you had to memorize.

Simple Syllables

Japanese borrows a ton of words from English. But as you’ve no doubt noticed, this isn’t nearly as helpful as it sounds. A lot of words become unrecognizable due to the lack of certain sounds in the Japanese language as well as to the number of vowels that seem to get added in for good measure. This is actually due to its simplicity (not its complexity), believe it or not. The syllable structure in Japanese is much simpler than than compared to English.

• English allows lots of consonants next to each other, both at the beginning and ends of syllables. Japanese generally doesn’t. So the sequence of consonants at the start of “story” gets broken up by a vowel, sutorii.
• In Japanese, generally you don’t even have one consonant at the end of a syllable, so you have to add a vowel there too: English “beer” becomes biiru.

There are exceptions to this though, and the main ones are always in the middle of words, including the past tenses we saw above and many others (we’ll mark the syllable boundary with a period):

kam.pai

yon.da

gak.koo

kap.pa

yat.ta

However, despite the existence of zillions of words like these, you can’t just end a syllable in m/n or p anywhere you want. Recombine those syllables randomly and you get a lot of words that wouldn’t be pronounceable in Japanese: (* is what linguists use to indicate that something is impossible)

*kap.da

*kam.ta

The generalizations makes sense once we look at what the consonants have in common. For this, we need to understand some basic phonetics.

Consonant Clusters and Phonetics

There are two ways consonants can come together in the middle of a word in Japanese. One is where the consonants are identical. Some consonants in Japanese can be long, or what linguistics call geminate (as in gemini, ‘twins’). These are the ones written with small tsu after them, in words like gak.koo, yat.ta, and kap.pa.

For now, we’re just going to make a list of the ones that can’t be doubled like this, and come back to it later: you can’t double b, d, or g.

To understand the other type of consonant cluster, where two non-identical consonants can be adjacent, we need to understand three basic elements of consonant phonetics.

1. Nasal consonants are the sounds that you can hum, like n and m. There are three of these in Japanese: The third one is the sound we don’t have a letter for in English, but is written with the sequence ng, like at the end of “sing.” (see footnote*)
2. All consonants have a place of articulation: this is where bits of your mouth touch to make them. Try to feel how you make these as you read the descriptions:

• m is bilabial: your lips come together in the classic hum
• n is alveolar: your tongue touches the alveolar ridge behind your teeth
• (ng) is velar: the top back part of your tongue touches the velum, which is the back top part of the inside of your mouth.

Feel it? OK, now we need to see how that works with other consonants: Play along at home by feeling how these are made:

• p & b are bilabial
• t & d are alveolar
• k & g are velar

We can lay these out in a table for those of you who like that sort of thing:

Got it? Now I can explain why only certain combinations of nasal and following consonant are allowed: they have to share the same place of articulation:

kam.pai both are bilabials

yon.da both are alveolars

Now, to get back to the past tense – remember that we were talking about the past tense? – we need our third and last bit of phonetics, and a tricky thing about Japanese vocabulary.

1. This last phonetic property is easiest to feel with with s and z. Make a zzzzzz sound and put your finger on your voicebox. You’ll feel a little buzz, indicating that z is what we called voiced. Make ssssss and do the same and you won’t feel anything. That’s because s is voiceless.

This property is harder to feel in consonants like t and k which you can’t extend that way, so if you can’t feel it, you’ll have to trust me:

• t and k are voiceless
• d and g are voiced

Let’s add that detail to the table:

Now you know which consonants are allowed to be geminate (remember, this means twins, or two of the same consonants together): only the voiceless sounds p, t, and k, and not the voiced b, d, and g.

Cluster Restrictions and the Past Tense

Now you know in general what consonant clusters are allowed in Japanese. The last background detail you need is that there are slightly different restrictions in different categories of Japanese vocabulary. I’ll explain the details in a footnote** for those who are extreme geeks, but for now we can get by just by knowing this:

The consonant clusters allowed in verb conjugations are a little more restricted than in the language as a whole: the consonant following a nasal has to be voiced.

So these are OK in verbs: nd, mb, because the second consonant is voiced.

These are not: nt, mp, because the second consonant is voiceless.

Now, if you’re still hanging in there, we can go back to all those wacky past tense forms and see that they really make a little more sense than it might seem.

You’ve got a bunch of verbs you want to make your past tenses, and really, if life were fair, you would be able to just add –ta and be done with it. Unfortunately, sometimes the syllable structure of Japanese won’t let you. What happens, then, is that various features of the consonants have to fight it out to see who wins. Depending on the consonants involved in the argument, they come up with different compromises.

Consonant fights that result in Nasal-Consonant Clusters

In three types of stems, the compromise comes out as one of those nasal-voiced consonant clusters that are allowed in verbs:

1. n-final stems

• shinu (die), which is what you want to do after reading this far in this article…

You want to take the stem shi(n) and add ta. But in verbs, that nasal-voiceless cluster isn’t allowed. The solution in this case is easy-peasy, you just have to change one thing: make the t in ta into its voiced counterpart, and you get shinda.

1. m-final stems

• yomu (read).

yom+ta has two problems: the voiceless “t” can’t go after a nasal, and a nasal-consonant cluster is only allowed if it has the same place of articulation. So two things have to change. “t” becomes voiced d, like in the last example. And bilabial “m” changes to alveolar “n,” so that it’s the same place as alveolar “t,” and you get yonda.

1. b-final stems

• yobu (call)

yob+ta. Seems like we’re really in trouble here… But really, compared to the last type, only one additional thing needs to change.

• As in (2), change the place of the first consonant, bilabial changes to alveolar;
• Make the first consonant nasal – nasals are voiced, so at least we’re keeping that characteristic of the original “b.”
• As in (1), now the t is after a nasal, so make it voiced.

So the changes are (order doesn’t matter): yob+ta → change the place yod+ta → change to a nasal yon+ta → voice the second consonant = yonda

Consonant fights that don’t result in clusters

Those last three cases are kind of interesting because the consonants really seem to compromise and get to keep bits of themselves, although they have to change other bits of themselves. Other types of consonants resolve the dispute differently, with what might seem like less skill at compromise:

1. S: In a stem that ends in “s,” the solution is much easier for the language learner, because “s” is totally unwilling to compromise and change any part of itself. So when a stem ends in “s,” we just do what happens to fix up the consonant cluster when we borrow an English word: insert a vowel. For example:

• kasu: kas+ta → kashita

1. K: For some reason, velar consonants are almost total wimps when they get into this argument. They completely disappear and are replaced with a vowel, or maybe a vowel gets inserted like in the last case and the velar hates it so much that it walks out. Whatever it is, when the stem ends in the voiceless velar “k” you get:

• kaku: kak+ta → kaita

1. G: But here’s one small and strange victory for the velars: before the voiced velar “g” walks out in the face of the insulting vowel, it manages to leave its voicing behind on the verb ending, which changes to “d”:

• kagu: kag+ta -> kaida

Consonant fights that end up with geminate “t”

Aside from nasal-consonant clusters that agree in place, as mentioned earlier, the other possible sequence of consonants that’s allowed in Japanese is the voiceless geminate. “t” is a voiceless consonant, so it’s not surprise that in some cases, the compromise solution is the sequence “tt”.

1. R – This consonant is completely defeated in the argument: it loses all features of itself and becomes “t”, so we’re left with the other type of consonant sequences that’s allowed, a voiceless geminate:

• hairu: hair+ta -> haitta
• agaru: agar+ta -> agatta
• karu: karu+ta -> katta

The last two types of stems are a little harder to explain, because you have to bring in comparisons with other forms.

1. T – This is what I am calling verbs like “wait.” Basically you don’t have to do anything here, because the sequence of “tt” is already OK:

• mat+ta -> matta
• kat+ta -> katta

What’s possibly confusing about these verbs is that that consonant elsewhere shows up as ts: matsu, katsu. If you prefer to think of that stem as ending in “ts”, then you can call that another consonant*3 like “r” that just gives up and loses to the “t.”

For the final type of verb, you might just want to cry “uncle” and memorize, because I have to bring in a lot of other comparisons to support the analysis, but for what it’s worth, here it is:

1. W - final stems. These are usually described as verb stems that end in vowels but instead of having the -ru ending, have -u added:

• ka-u, tsuka-u, instead of tabe-ru

But you’ll note that elsewhere in their conjugations, these vowels have a mysterious “w,” like when you add -anai:

• kawanai, tsukawanai

We can consider these stems that actually end in “w”, which disappears before the -u ending, and is another consonant that loses the battle to the past tense “t”:

• kaw + ta -> katta.
• tsukaw +ta -> tsukatta

but if you want to just consider these irregular, I won’t blame you.

Conclusion

Hopefully now at least some of the patterns in the Japanese past tense make more sense to you. Aside from making the world a more interesting place, this may help if you’re still at the point of having to memorize them- and the -te forms, too, which show the same patterns.

And finally, there are actually a couple of totally irregular verbs: suru/shita and kuru/kita. At this point you’re probably relieved there isn’t an explanation for those. Did you ever think you’d be so happy to have to memorize an irregular verb? There’s another thing in-depth linguistic analysis does for you!

Footnotes

*You can tell that ng in ‘sing’ is only one sound by comparing it with a word where there is really a separate g after it. We don’t spell them differently, but if you are a native speaker of English, you should be able to tell the difference:

• singer – there’s only one consonant in the middle
• finger- there’s two consonants, the nasal and a separate g.

**There’s a very interesting similarity between English and Japanese that’s not true of most other major world languages and is based in similarities in our history. In English, we have two types of vocabulary: the basic Germanic words that have always been with us, and the fancier words that came in from Romance languages with the Norman conquest. So we have a word like “heart,” but its related adjective is “cardiac” instead of something like “heartiac.” “Heart” is the original Germanic word, and “cardiac” comes from the Romance vocabulary that came in later. Japanese is similar: there is a category of native words, that include the verbs, and another category that came in later as borrowings from Japanese. This is why Japanese, like English, often has two related words for the same meaning – and why most kanji have two different readings.

*** Yes, “ts” represents what is a single consonant in Japanese. It’s a consonant called an affricate. We have a different affricate in English, the sound that begins the word “child.” Like “ng” this is a sound we don’t have a single letter for. Since we don’t even have a single letter for our own affricate, so it’s no surprise we don’t have a way to write the Japanese one with a single letter in our alphabet either.

Kanji Stroke Order Rules

There are a set of general rules that you can learn to know the stroke order of 99% of all the kanji out there. Sure, there’ll be exceptions, but this is way better than learning the individual stroke orders of thousands of individual kanji.

Top To Bottom, Left To Right

This is a big one.When writing kanji, you always want to start your stroke on the left side of the line. If there is no left-side start position because it’s a vertical line, you’ll want to write from top to bottom. Whatever you end up writing, know that when you write any single stroke it should be written either left to right or top to bottom.

When you write horizontal strokes, they go left to right (see image one). When you write vertical strokes, you go top to bottom (see image two).

Horizontal Goes First

So now you know what direction to write all your strokes in, but what order do the strokes go in? Most of the time, you’ll want to do horizontal strokes first before doing the vertical ones.

You’ll also want to start with the horizontal strokes that are closer to the top left first. Whenever you start writing a kanji, begin here. This is usually where your first stroke will reside.

Center Vertical Before Symmetrical Outside

The 木 character in the above section begs a question though. Why are you writing the vertical line second, and not the two diagonals? What a great question, esteemed reader. When there’s a vertical line with symmetrical characters on the outside of it, you do the vertical line first.

In both 木 (tree) and 水 (water) there are non-horizontal / non-vertical lines hugging both sides. Plus, they are symmetrical (or close enough, as is the case with 水). When this is the case, you’ll want to write the vertical stroke before the sides, though you’ll still want to write any horizontal strokes before the vertical one (as is the case in the example for 木).

Boxes Are Three Strokes

One really basic thing that you need to know is that boxes (aka the 口 kanji) are only three strokes. A lot of people make the mistake of writing these boxes using four strokes (one stroke for each side). It’s important to know the stroke order for a box since it affects other stroke-order related things as well.

The strange thing about boxes is that they start with a vertical stroke instead of a horizontal one. The horizontal one is second, though it turns at a right angle to continue to the bottom (all in one stroke). Then, the last stroke is a horizontal stroke from the left (always from the left, remember!) to close out the box. Make sure you remember this, because the next rule requires this information!

Enclose Contents On Three Sides First

There are a lot of kanji that consist of big squares surrounding something. For example, 回, 園, 国, and so on. When you have a kanji like this that has an enclosure, really you can follow the same rules as you’ve been learning. The main thing, though, is that you do three sides of the enclosure first (that’s the first two strokes of the box/enclosure) and then do everything on the inside. When you’re finished with the inside, you can finish off the enclosure with a single horizontal stroke (that’s stroke three from the last section).

Whenever you see an enclosure like this, begin with the enclosure first. This even holds true for other types of enclosures, even ones that don’t close on the bottom. Examples of kanji like this include 同, 可, 月, 用, 病, and more. With these, you’d still do as much of the three sides of the enclosure that you can then follow that with the inside portions. When there’s not bottom horizontal stroke to close it off, just skip that part. By learning the pattern with the full enclosure (口), though, you should be able to do it with other types of enclosures as well.

Bottom Enclosure Last

You just learned about topside enclosures, so what about bottom-side ones? I’m talking about the squiggly lines that you often see in the bottom left portion of kanji, for example 道, 近, and so on. These sections always come after the parts above them. As in, they come last.

There’s a couple of interpretations on stroke order for the bottom enclosure too. Some people do it with two strokes (the dash at the top, and then the rest all in one stroke) and some do it in three strokes (dash at the top, the more vertical line, and then the horizontalish one). The three-stroke version is probably more correct, but it’s a lot easier and faster to write it with two.

Right-To-Left Diagonals Before Left-To-Right Diagonals

In cases where you have diagonal strokes, you’ll want to do the right-to-left one first. This makes sense when the diagonals don’t cross (as is the case with 木), but when they do cross, things get a little tricky. Let’s look at the kanji 父 since it’s made up of four diagonal strokes, which covers both situations at once!

You should also note that even when there are two sets of diagonals, you start with the set that is near the top-left first (because this is where kanji usually starts to get written from). Then, the second set of diagonals are written after. When the right-to-left diagonal isn’t crossing a left-to-right diagonal, it follows the rules you’ve already learned so far. The exception that you have to remember is when the diagonals cross. The rule for diagonals remains the same, but you’re starting on the right side instead of the left, which may feel a bit strange. Still though, you’re ending in the bottom right (see stroke 4 in the image above), which is where you want to be ending.

Strokes That Cross Through A Lot Of Other Strokes Go Last

In some cases, there are kanji with a lot of horizontal strokes or a lot of vertical strokes, all in a line. When this is the case, you’ll want to do the stroke that crosses through all of these strokes last.

See how all the horizontal strokes go first? Then, when they are all finished, the vertical line can go through them after.

Dots/Dashes Are Saved For The End

When there are little dashes or dots, you can save those for the end.

The exception to this is when the dot is at the very top. Then you want the dot to go first.

When the dash is at the top of a kanji and there’s nothing else equal to it in a horizontal plane, then usually that dash comes first, not last. This is also true for a section of kanji. Because you write kanji in sections (that’s the next area of this guide) you get to reset your rules at the beginning of each section. So, in the case of 泳, you’d write the left side first, then reset to start the right side, which starts with the dash at the top.

Write Kanji In Sections / Radicals

More complicated kanji are made up of multiple less-complicated kanji (or radicals, as I like to call them). When a complicated kanji has multiple radicals like this, you’ll want to write the kanji one radical at a time, starting (usually) from the top left radical working your way down to the bottom right. Each time you start to write a new radical, reset your writing rules just for that one section. Think of them as separate kanji you have to write, and then combine them together. Here’s an example of a more complicated kanji, and how you’d write it radical by radical. Note that there’s no stroke order here, I’m just showing you how to identify each individual section as well as which order to do them in.

This means that if you use the rules from this guide to learn how to write smaller kanji you can usually figure out the stroke order for bigger kanji as well. Just make sure you do each section individually in a top-left to bottom-right sort of order and you’ll be A-Okay.

There Are Always Exceptions

…to everything. These rules will guide you most of the time, but sometimes things aren’t what they seem. Although doing the “wrong” stroke order by following these rules won’t get in you in much trouble, I think, you will have to learn these exceptions as exceptions if you want to learn and remember them.

Just know that they’re out there and look out for them when you can. Don’t stress out about it or anything, though. It’s not that big a deal unless you’re doing calligraphy or something like that.

Some Stroke Order Resources

If you need to look up the stroke order of a kanji, here are some websites that will help you out.

• Jisho.org
• Yamasa Institute

Sometimes you won’t always be able to find a stroke order guide for the kanji you’re looking for though (especially if it’s a rare kanji). When this happens, you should just guess using the rules above. Also note that rare kanji also have strange stroke orders, so they may be exceptions anyways. Hopefully you don’t run into the need to write rare kanji in proper stroke order too often, though, so this isn’t something you ought to worry much about.

As you write more kanji and see this rules in action more often, writing in correct stroke order will become natural for you and you won’t even have to think about it. I hope this guide helps you to get to that point, and good luck in all your kanji writing endeavors!

Still, counters are a ton of work. After you’ve learned the more basic Japanese counters, it ends up coming down to experience if you want to use them correctly after that. Sadly, most of this experience comes over a very long period of time. You see a thing, you see someone count that thing, and then you get a little closer. There just isn’t a resource out there that shows the counter with a list of things that can be counted in this way. I’m hoping to fix that with this guide.

The Things We Count

This obviously doesn’t cover everything, but I wanted to show you a counter, then give you a list of things that are counted using said counter. You’ll notice that many of these things have multiple counters associated with them, and that’s okay. In fact, it should give you more idea around context. For example, you’ll see “soba” being counted a bunch of different ways. It can be counted using 本 (because each individual noodle is a long, cylindrical object). It can be counted with 束 because it can be bundled together into bundles. It can also be counted with 丁 because it is a serving of food. As you look at the counters, make sure to think about these items in context. It will help a lot when you’re trying to make sense of certain less-obvious examples.

Anyways, I hope this guide will help to make counters less abstract. I know that there is a lot of information here, but if you come back when you have a counter you’re not totally sure of and look them up one at a time, you’ll slowly begin to understand the counters as a whole, and perhaps you’ll even begin to contextualize things a bit too.

挺・ちょう (Counter For Guns, Inksticks, Palanquins, Rickshaws…)

Electric Iron, Axe, Palanquin, Sickle, Razor, Woodworking Plane, Abacus, Guitars, Pistol/Handgun, Shamisen, Ink, Saw, Chisel, Violin, Scissors, Ice Axe, Kitchen Knife, Carving Knife, Portable Shrine, File, Rifle, Wrench, Cello, Nail Clippers, Gun, Candle.

台・だい (Counter For Machines And Vehicles)

Electric Iron, Accordion, Air Conditioner, Motorcycle, Cage, Music Box, Car Navigation System, Wig, Camera, Vacuum Cleaner, Abacus, Push Car, Typhoon, Hurricane, Festival Float, Cello, Table, Television, Telephone, Lighthouse, Keyboard, Machine, Balloon, Blimp, Stepladder, Steps, Car, Vehicle, Cake, Kotatsu Table, Small Chair, Tricycle, Charcoal Brazier, Railroad Cars, Bicycle, Water Wheel, Rice Cooker, Heater, Stretcher, Sprinkler, Playground Slide, Washing Machine, Electric Fan, Scales (for weight), Piano, Airship, Windmill, Bed, Motor, Food Cart, Radio, Lift, Roulette, Radar, Potter’s Wheel, Robot.

点・てん (Counter For Goods Or Items)

Accessory, Carving, Alcohol Vase, Picture, Drawing, Horse Picture, Raindrops, Drops Of Water, Curtain, Pottery, Earthenware, Portrait, Cloth, Article, Book, Stuffed Animal, Stuffed Object, Lacquer Ware, Ring.

個・こ (Counter For Articles)

Accessory, Manila Clam, Head, Legless Chair, Earring, Rock, Umeboshi, Station Bento, Bucket, Cage, Music Box, Shellfish, Shell, Hand Warmer, Persimmon, Oyster, Fruit, Nut, Berry, Wig, Bell, Drum, Typhoon, Hurricane, Rice Bowl, Alcohol Vase, Teacup, Battery, Whetstone, Pottery, Donburi, Nut (and bolt), Doll, Puppet

匹・ひき (Counter For Small Animals, 2-han Size Cloth Rolls)

Devil, Cuttlefish, Squid, Dog, Rabbit, Cow, Eel, Sea Urchin, Horse, Prawn, Shrimp, Lobster, Trophy, Wolf, Mosquito, Shellfish, Silkworm, Frog, Oyster, Snail, Crab, Tortoise, Turtle, Octopus, Animal, Dragonfly, Sea Otter

回・かい (Counter For Occurances)

Yawn, Fart, Chance, Opportunity, Mail, Times, Revolution

粒・りゅう (Counter For Tiny Particles)

Manila Clam, Adzuki Beans, Sweat, Umeboshi, Tears, Teardrop, Caviar, Medicine, Rice, Ruby, Raisin

本・ほん (Counter For Long Cylindrical Things)

Asparagus, Soba, Dart, Firewood, Bamboo, Stilts, Cord, Sliding Doors, Shoji, Tree Branch, Thread, Dumpling, Water Well, Seal, Stamp, Injection, Fan, Eel, Horsetail, Nail Clippers, Icicle, Strap (to hang onto), Fishing Rod, Film, Letter, Pencil, Chimney, Pylon, Folding Fan, Hand Towel, Tenugui, Decorations, Train, Sash, Telephone Pole, Battery, Dripping Water, Telephone, Telegram, Carpet, Pagoda, Stupa, Earthen Pipe, Screwdriver, Persimmon, Cocktail, Knife, Umbrella, Nagaimo, Scallion, Green Onion, Shallot, Gas Bomb, Sword, Katana, Rope, katsuoboshi, Meat, Hairpin, Tree, Necktie, Screw, Necklace, Article, News Story, Tree Ring, Mushroom, Saw, Script, Flag, Streamer, Banner, Chisel, Stepladder, Steps, Beacon, Skyrockets, Nail, Tooth, Herb, Lipstick, Cloud, Bridge, Flag, Flower, Spring (bouncy kind), Blood Vessel, Smoke Plume, Cigar, Television Program, Seal, Bowstring, Advertisement, Earrings, Perfume, Ladle, Ice Axe, Burdock Root, Konbu, Film, Flute, Whistle, Climbing Rope, Bamboo Pole, Rod, Alcohol, Writing Brush, False Tooth, Paperweight, Cactus, Bandage, Kitchen Knife, Hose, Threshold, Bamboo Sword, Cavity, Whip, Cane, Glasses, Noodles, Cotton Swab, Arrow, File, Spear, Canteen, Flask, Water Bottle, Shovel, Stick, Wand, Trumpet, Strap, Straw, Ribbon, Spoon, Spare Rib, Trousers, Pants, Charcoal, Rail, Flower Arrangement, Olympic Torch, Wrench, Clear Stream, Corridor, Rope, Candle, Incense Stick, Chromosome, Folding Fan, Wine, Vaccine, Chopsticks, Beer, Bottles

束・そく (Counter For Bundles)

Asparagus, Rice Plant, Soba, Firewood, Seedling, Scallion, Shallot, Green Onion, Rope, Konbu, Noodles, Incense Stick

筋・すじ (Counter For Long Straight Objects)

Sweat, Belt, Sash, Tears (crying kind), Rope, Beacon, Signal Fire, Cloud, Smoke Plume, Smoke, Arrow, Spear, Clear Stream

滴・てき (Counter For Drops Of Liquid)

Perfume, Sweat

件・けん（Counter For Matters, Items, and Cases)

Addressee’s name, Recipient’s name and address, Proposal, Suggestion, Marriage Proposal, Engagement, Legislative Bill, Agenda Item, Project, Plan, Complaint, Objection, Contract, Agreement, Mail, Financing, Loan

棟・とう (Counter For Homes And Buildings)

Apartment Building, Apartment, House, Hermitage, Tenement, Warehouse, Factory

軒・けん (Counter For Houses And Buildings)

Apartment Building, Apartment, House, Hermitage, Tenement, Warehouse, Factory

具・ぐ (Counter for Armor, Suits, and Sets of Furniture)

Stirrup, Comb, Hakama, Chopsticks, String Of Beads, Helmet Armor

足・そく (Counter For Pairs)

Stirrup, Japanese Sandals (zori), Japanese Socks (tabi), Gloves, Mittens, Shoes, Socks, Stockings, Wooden Clogs (geta), Slippers, Roller skate

組・くみ (Set Of Items)

Couple Of Lovers, Earring, Marriage Proposal, Gloves, Mittens, Playing Cards, Couples, Futon Beds, Stacked Food Boxes, Bedding, Suit

着・ちゃく (Counter For Suits Of Clothing)

Raincoat, Clothes, Garment, Overcoat, Cloak, Kimono, Yukata, Suit, Business Suit

枚・まい (Counter For Flat Objects)

Dust Cloth, Soba, Rice Field, Sliding Storm Shutter, Portrait of Deceased Person, Kite, Raft, Tatami Mat, Sheet Of Dried Sardines, Sliding Door Fittings, Tapestry, Clothes, Rock, Tea Cloth, Fan, Fish Scale, Picture, Painting, Drawing, T-Shirt, Apron, Commuter Pass, Picture Of A Horse, Tablecloth, Draft, Letter, Glove, Mitten, Charm, Curtain, Tent, Pavilion, Door, Whetstone, Curtain, Pottery, Carpet, Shellfish, Shell, Oyster, Musical Score, Naan, Wig, Meat, Stock Certificate, Portrait, Playing Cards, Roof Tile, Cloth, Ticket, Mushroom, Seaweed, Camisole, Sign Curtain, Kimono, Leaf, Comb, Postcard, Gear, Battledore, Contract, Ornamental Sumo Apron, Handkerchief, Japanese Writing Paper, Pounded Fish Cake, Hammock, Advertisement, Lattice Door, Pizza, Eaves, Croquette, CD, Film, Japanese Sliding Screen, Futon, Sake Lees, Sumo Apron, Sitting Pillow, Wall, Fence, Plate, Zarusoba, Bookmark, O-Bon Festival, Paving Stone, Pavement, Paper, Carpet, Rug, Curtain, Tongue, Straw Raincoat, Business Card, Fish Shaped Wooden Temple Drum, Sticky Rice Cake (mochi), Earthenware, File, Photograph, Yukata, Rusk, Bamboo Screen, Pants, Trousers, Cuttlefish, Record, Brick, Bill, Sweater, Rice Cracker, Arm Band, Haori (Japanese formal coat)

歩・ほ (Counter For Steps, Strides)

Walking

冊・さつ (Counter For Books)

Book Collection, Albums, Notebook, Memo Pad, Musical Score, Catalog, Notebook, Dictionary, Book, Publication, Documents,

帖・じょう (Counter For Units Of Paper And Seaweed)

Album, Notebook, Seaweed, Japanese Writing Paper, Folding Screen,

戸・と (Counter For Houses)

House, Warehouse

床・しょう (Counter For Beds)

Raft, Bed

杯・はい (Counter For Cupfuls, Ships, Octopuses, And Squid)

Zouni (new years mochi soup dish), Soba, Octopus, Squid, Flower Arrangement, Rice With Tea Poured On (chazuke), Donburi, Cocktail, Crab, Ship, Boat, When It’s Time To Drink, Whiskey Sour, Meal, Ramen,

鉢・はち (Counter For Potted Things)

Flower Arrangement, Garden Shrubs, Cactus, Brazier, Bonsai,

局・きょく (Counter For Boards)

Go (board game), Chess, Shogi,

番・ばん (Counter For Ordering and Boards)

Go (board game), Entertainment, Performance, Noh Theater, TV Program, Order, Rank, Shogi, Sumo,

体・たい (Counter For Statues, Bodies, and Images)

Statue, Large Statue Of Buddha (daibutsu), Ashes Of Deceased, Corpse, Carving, Horse Picture, Earthen Figure, Clay Figure, Doll, Puppet, Stuffed Toy, Plush Toy, Stuffed Animal, Haniwa, Buddhist Statue, Jizo Statue, Moai Statue, An Object In Which A Deity Resides, Stone Statue, Waxwork, Wax Model, Chromosome

脚・きゃく (Counter For Chairs And Seats)

Chairs With Legs, Desk, Table, Wine Glass

株・かぶ (Counter For Small Plants)

Rice Plant, Garden Shrub, Persimmon, Seedling, Stock Certificate, Tree, Mushroom, Cabbage, Herb, Chinese Cabbage, Lettuce,

柱・はしら (Counter For Pillars)

Buddhist Mortuary Tablet, An Object In Which A Deity Resides

綛・かせ (Counter For Reels)

Thread

巻・かん (Counter For Rolls)

Thread, Movie, Film, Cloth, Cigar, Bandage, Hose, Scroll, Rolled Sheet, Dictionary, Book, Publication, Documents, Official Papers, Rope

頭・とう (Counter For Large Animals)

Elephant, Large Dog Breed, Seeing Eye Dog, Dolphin, Cow, Horse, Trophy, Silkworm, Monster, Whale, Bear, Large Stuffed Animal, Gorilla, Monkey, Camel, Sea Otter, Donkey

基・き (Counter For Machines)

Water Well, Fireplace, Hearth, Mill-stone, Mortar, Carving, Air Conditioner, Bank, Elevator, Chimney, Smokestack, Pylon, Cage, Toilet, Lighthouse, Stupa, Pagoda, Street Light, Garden Lantern, Bonfire, Shinto Shrine Archway, Gas Tank, Coffin, Casket, Machine, Gravesite, Tomb, Bridge, Wreath, Atomic Reactor, Stone Monument Bearing An Inscription, Incense Burner, Kotatsu Table, Pyramid, Windmill, Pinwheel, Buddhist Alter, Pillow, Portable Shrine, Moai Statue, Motor, Satellite, Water Wheel, Water Gate, Lamp, Lift, Sprinkler, Playground Slide, Radar, Stone Hut, Hearth, Stone Monument, Pagoda, Potter’s Wheel,

対・つい (Counter For Pairs)

Stilts, Hanging Scroll, Earrings, Brazier

玉・たま (Counter For Balls)

Soba, Branch Of A Sacred Tree, Udon, Persimmon, Fruit, Nut, Berry, Cabbage, Noodles, Watermelon, Lettuce

羽・わ (Counter For Birds And Rabbits)

Ostrich, Rabbit, Origami Crane, Bird, Peacock

曲・きょく (Counter For Music)

Song, Music

席・せき (Counter For Sitting Occasions)

Party, Banquet, Entertainment, Performance, Drinking Party

腹・はら (Counter For Inside-The-Belly-Area Things)

Sea Urchin, Salted Salmon Roe, Walleye Pollack Roe

壺・つぼ (Counter For Pots)

Sea Urchin

騎・き (Counter For Equestrians)

Horse, Horse-Riding,

作・さく (Counter For Works)

Movie, Film

折・おり (Counter For Bent Things)

Station Bento, Bento, Folded Paper Crane,

尾・び (Counter For Fish)

Fish, Shrimp, Prawn, Crab,

掛・かけ (Counter For Hung Things)

Stirrup, Apron,

口・くち (Counter For Bank Accounts, Donations, Things With Openings)

Teakettle, Alcohol Vase, Application, Sword, Bell, Razor, Contribution, Donation, Contract, Bank Account, Insurance, Financing, Loan, Japanese Soup Bowl

団・だん (Counter For Groups)

Orchestra

階・かい (Counter For Floors)

Floor

話・わ (Counter For Stories, Episodes)

Episodes

泊・はく (Counter For Nights Of A Stay)

Number Of Nights

年・ねん (Counter For Years)

Year

月・げつ (Counter For Months)

Month

歳／才・さい (Counter For Years Old)

Years Old

俵・たわら (Counter For Bags Of Rice)

Rice

週・しゅう (Counter For Weeks)

Week

荷・か (Counter For Cargo)

Bucket, Cask, Barrel

発・はつ (Counter For Gunshots)

Wind, Gas, Fart, Horse-riding, Fist, Bomb

張・はり (Counter For Umbrellas, Parasols, Tents)

Paper Lantern, Drum, Tent, Curtain, Pavilion, Curtain, Umbrella, Mosquito Net, Sign Curtain, Koto Instrument, Bow (and arrow), Bamboo Screen

面・めん (Counter For Mirrors, Boards), Stages, Walls, And Courts)

Abacus, Rice Field, Drum, Sliding Door, Sports Ground, Playing Field, Folding Fan, Tennis Court, Curtain, Tent, Pavilion, Mirror, Plot Of Land, Framed Picture, Noh Mask, Biwa (Japanese lute), Koto Instrument, Go Board, Biwa (Japanese lute), Newspaper, Inkstone, Folding Fan

重・かさね (Counter For Piles)

Mirror Shaped Mochi, Tree Ring, Futon, Multi-tiered Food Box, Mochi (rice cakes),

架・か (Counter For Frames)

Framed Picture

艘・そう (Counter For Small Boats)

Kayak, Ship, Boat

両・りょう (Counter For Railway Cars)

Freight Car, Car, Automobile, Railroad Car, Vehicle, Van, Train

車・しゃ (Counter For Cars)

Freight Car

把・わ (Counter For Bundles)

Soba, Firewood, Noodles, Incense Stick,

丁・ちょう (Counter For Servings Of Food)

Soba, Udon, Tofu, Ramen

門・もん (Counter For Cannons)

Gun, Cannon, Artillery

尊・そん (Counter For Revered Things)

Jizo Statue, Large Buddha Statue (daibutsu)

畳・じょう (Counter For Tatami Mats)

Tatami Mats

駄・だ (Counter For Horse Loads)

Barrel, Cask

首・しゅ (Counter For Tanka Poems)

Tanka (31-syllable poem), Waka (classic Japanese poem)

棹・さお (Counter For Drawers, Chests, And Flags)

Chest Of Drawers, Tansu Cabinet, Cupboard or Chest For Tea Implements, Large Oblong Chest, Banner, Flag, Shamisen (three string Japanese guitar), Sweet Bean Jelly (youkan),

串・くし (Counter For Skewers)

Sweet Dumpling, Skewers

戦・せん (Counter For Matches)

Chess

服・ふく (Counter For Bowls Of Medicine)

Tea, Medicine, Bowls Of Matcha, Puffs Of A Cigarette

袋・ふくろ (Counter For Pouches)

Snacks, Tea Leaves

箱・はこ (Counter For Boxes)

Tea Leaves, Snacks, Sweet Bean Jelly (Youkan), Box

缶・かん (Counter For Containers, Tin Cans)

Tea Leaves

客・きゃく (Counter For Pairs Of Cups And Saucers)

Rice Bowl, Tea Cup, Plate, Wine Glass, Japanese Soup Bowl

波・は (Counter For Waves)

Tsunami

翼・よく (Counter For Wings)

Wing, Bird

卓・たく (Counter For Tables)

Table, Desk

晩・ばん (Counter For Nights)

All-Night, Night

寺・じ (Temples)

Temple

宇・う (Counter For Roofs)

Temple

堂・どう (Counter For Halls)

Temple

人・ひと (Counter For People)

Angel, Human, People

名・めい (Polite Counter For People)

People

通・つう (Counter For Letters)

Draft, Note, Telegram, Letter, Postcard, Written Contract, Email, Excerpt, Book, Volume, Bond, Documents, Official Papers, Bill, Job Invoice

箇所・かしょ (Counter For Places)

Toilet

灯・とう (Counter For Lights)

Lighthouse

層・そう (Counter For Floors, Layers)

Stupa, Pagoda

筆・ひつ (Counter For Pieces Of Land)

Plot Of Land

区画・くかく (Counter For Sections)

Plot Of Land

掬・きく (Counter For Scoops Of Water)

Tears

間・ま (Counter For Intervals, Space)

Back Room, Closet, Storage Room, Tatami Room, Period Of Time

室・しつ (Counter For Rooms)

Back Room, Closet, Storage Room, Room

部屋・へや (Counter For Rooms)

Back Room, Closet, Storage Room, Room

塊・かたまり (Counter For Lumps)

Meat, Cloud

切れ・きれ (Counter For Slices Of Things)

Sashimi, Pizza, Mochi, Meat, Bread, Cake

度・ど (Counter For Occurrences, Degrees)

Chance, Opportunity, Number Of Times, Degrees, Temperature

剤・ざい (Counter For Doses)

Medicine

包・ぽう (Counter For Wraps)

Medicine

錠・じょう (Counter For Pills)

Medicine

条・じょう (Counter For Thin Objects, Rays Of Light, Streaks Of Smoke, Streaks)

Cloud, Belt, Smoke, Arrow, Spear

領・りょう (Counter For Collars)

Haori (Japanese formal coat), Kasaya (monk’s stole), Twelve Layered Ceremonial Kimono, Armor

腰・こし (Counter For Hips)

Ornamental Sumo Apron, Hakama, Sword

升・しょう (Counter For 1.8 Liter Measuring Boxes)

Rice

編・ぺん (Counter For Completed Poems)

Song

葉・は (Counter For Small Flat Things)

Leaf, Postcard, Bookmark, Business Card, Photograph

景・けい (Counter For Scenes)

Play, Drama

場・ば (Counter For Scenes Of A Play)

Play, Drama

島・とう (Counter For Islands)

Island

管・かん (Counter For Flutes, Brushes)

Shakuhachi Flute, Flute, Writing Brush

部・ぶ (Counter For Copies Of A Newspaper Or Magazine, Packets Of Paper)

Music Score, Catalog, Back Room, Closet, Storage Room, Book, Publication, Documents, Official Papers, Newspaper,

斤・きん (Counter For Loaves Of Bread)

Plain Bread, White Bread, Loaf

膳・ぜん (Counter For Pairs Of Chopsticks, Bowls Of Rice)

Chopsticks, Splittable Wood, Meal

座・ざ (Counter For Seats)

Object In Which A Deity Resides, Shinto Shrine

紙・し (Counter For Paper)

Newspaper

椀・わん (Counter For Wooden / Lacquered Bowls)

Japanese Style Soup (suimono)

揃・そろい (Counter For Sets)

Chopsticks, Biwa (Japanese lute), Futon, Bedding, Suit, Business Suit

貫・かん (Counter For Nigiri Sushi)

Sushi, Nigiri Sushi

隻・せき (Counter For Ships)

Battleship, Ship, Boat, Vessel

句・く (Counter For Haiku)

Comic Haiku, Haiku

針・はり (Counter For Needlework)

Seam, Stitch, Suture

機・き (Counter For Aircraft, Machines)

Airplane, Airship, Blimp, Balloon, Blimp, Hot-Air Balloon

床・しょう (Counter For Beds)

Bed, Raft

旒・りゅう (Counter For Flags)

Flag, Banner

流れ・ながれ (Counter For Flags)

Flag, Banner

歯・し (Counter For Teeth)

Tooth

日・ひ (Counter For Days)

Day, Day Of The Month

顆・か (Counter For Small Spheres)

Seal, Stamp, Ruby, Gem, Jewel

軸・じく (Counter For Book Scrolls)

Scroll, Rolled Sheet, Hanging Scroll

品・ひん, しな (Counter For Meal Courses)

Cooking, Sashimi, Meal Course

Please Be Warned

As you go through these, not all of the counters will be the ones you’re looking for. Try to think about the context of why something is using a counter when it is. Just because it’s listed under a counter doesn’t mean it’s the most appropriate way to count that item all the time. There is a lot of crossover depending on the state of the thing, so only experience will help you to understand that.

Instead, I want you to look at this list the opposite way. You should have some knowledge of a certain counter already, then come here to look at all the examples for that item. By looking at examples, it should give you a better idea of how that particular counter works on a whole.

There are also plenty of other counters and things to be counted that haven’t been included in this guide. Like… a lot of them. Be sure to go out into the world and experience them as it’s the only real way to become familiar and comfortable with Japanese counters. It won’t be easy, but I hope this guide helped!

I got some help  on this guide from:

• http://hanntaigo.main.jp/count/
• http://www.benricho.org/kazu/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_counter_word

If you’ve studied Japanese for at least a little while, you’ve probably run across a phenomenon known as rendaku. Rendaku means “sequential voicing” and it’s when the reading of a word changes when coupling multiple parts of the word together. I think it’s probably easier to show you some examples of common words that are affected by rendaku:

人々　＝　ひとびと（not ひとひと)

手紙　＝　てがみ（not てかみ)

When the two parts of these words are separated they are different from when they are combined. ひと changes to びと and かみ to がみ. To most Japanese learners, this behavior probably feels random. But, there’s a method behind the madness, and you’re going to learn about it via this guide.

Examples Of Rendaku Words

The best way to understand rendaku is to look at some examples.

山桜（やまざくら）
さくら turns to ざくら

雨合羽（あまがっぱ）
かっぱ turns to がっぱ

草花（くさばな）
はな turns to ばな

人々（ひとびと）
ひと turns to びと

時々（ときどき）
とき turns to どき

株式会社（かぶしきがいしゃ）
かいしゃ changes to がいしゃ

You can see how in all these words the first kana in the second part of the word changes to its dakuten version (dakuten is the little quotation mark / circle that modifies a kana). So, these are examples of words that do get converted via rendaku. What about the ones that don’t?

What Doesn’t Cause Rendaku?

I think an easier way to go about understanding rendaku would be to figure out what doesn’t cause a word to change. Looking at it this way produces a more solid set of rules that you can work off of.

1. When A Word Already Has a Dakuten/Dakuon

If the second word in the sequence has a dakuten there’s nothing you can do to make it go rendaku. There’s no anti-rendaku that removes a dakuten/dakuon.

2. Lyman’s Law

Lyman’s Law is perhaps the most famous way to figure out whether or not a word will get the rendaku treatment. Lyman’s law states that:

Rendaku does not occur when the second element of the compound contains a voiced obstruent in any position.

Okay. What the hell is avoiced obstruent (seriously, wtf linguistic people?). A voiced obstruent, put simply, is a consonant sound (so, not a vowel) which is formed by “obstructing airflow in your throat.” Try saying the following sounds and see if you can figure out what I mean:

b, d, g, v, j, z

If you do a lot of these sounds slowly you’ll find your throat has to close a bit (obstruct airflow) in order to be made. Of course, not all of these sounds are applicable. That being said, there are exceptions to this “law” but it will keep you to stay clear most of the time.

Anyways, the idea is basically this: Rendaku won’t occur as much when the second word/section has a voiced obstruent in it. Let’s take a look at some examples:

人々（ひとびと）＝　People
The second section (originally ひと) has no voiced obstruent in it. Because it didn’t have a voiced obstruent, it does do the rendaku treatment.

時々（ときどき）＝　Sometimes
This is a weird one. In words that are duplicators (same thing twice), the second part is usually rendaku’d. Same goes with 人々.

山火事（やまかじ）＝　Forest Fire
The second word/section (かじ) does contain a voiced obstruent. Thus, the rendaku does not occur (it is やまかじ not やまがじ).

As I’ve mentioned, there are plenty of exceptions out there, but Lyman’s law will help a lot if you’re ever having trouble figuring out the reading of a word.

3. Foreign Words

Japanese has a lot of loan words, where non-Japanese words have been incorporated into the Japanese language. These are most often written in katakana. In cases like this, you’ll hardly ever see rendaku being used.

アイスコーヒー (Iced Coffee)
You would not change this to アイスゴーヒ, it is a foreign word.

Besides foreign words like these, though, there are also words that were imported via the kanji (from China). The on’yomi reading of a kanji is considered the Chinese reading. The kun’yomi is the Japanese reading, which later got associated with the kanji. When working with the on’yomi reading of kanji, you’ll often combine these together to create a single word. These types of jukugo words rarely get the jukugo treatment, though it does happen from time to time.

The kun’yomi reading of kanji, however, gets the rendaku treatment quite a bit. If you see some kana attached to a kanji or two this is a good indication that the word you’re trying to read uses kun’yomi readings and therefore may be a rendaku word.

Groups Of Rendaku Behavior

Lyman’s law and other “behavior rules” aren’t always reliable. There are some other things you can do to help figure out when rendaku takes place or doesn’t take place. There are different “groups” of words that have different kinds of rules. If you know these groups (especially this first one) you’ll be able to figure out rendaku words more effectively.

Group #1: Immune To Rendaku

This set of Japanese (“Yamato”) nouns (versus nouns imported from China … we’re talking kun’yomi here) never undergo the rendaku treatment. Out of allllll the Japanese word nouns out there, this is a tiny fraction. It’s the exception so to speak, but it’s also solid, without any exceptions of its own.

• 浜（はま）＝　Beach
• 下（した）＝　Below
• 土（つち）＝　Earth
• はし（はし）＝　Edge
• かまち（かまち）＝　Framework
• 滓（かす）＝　Garbage, Scum
• 艶（つや）＝　Gloss
• 枷（かせ）＝　Handcuffs
• 暇（ひま）＝　Leisure
• 北（きた）＝　North
• 姫（ひめ）＝　Princess
• 形（かたち）＝　Shape
• 煙（けむり）＝　Smoke
• 紐（ひも）＝　String

So, with these examples, you can conclude that none of them will appear in the rendaku form (ひま will never be びま, けむり will never be げむり, and so on). Want some examples of this? Here you go:

横浜（よこはま）＝　Yokohama (the city)
よこはま doesn’t turn to よこばま
As far as I can tell, this doesn’t have a voiced obstruent in the はま, but because it’s one of the exception words it doesn’t change to ばま.

顔形（かおかたち）＝　Facial Features
かたち stays at かたち. It is immune to rendaku.

血煙（ちけむり）＝　Squirt Of Blood
けむり stays at けむり, just like it should.

You can also do a search on jisho.org where you take the word (above) and put a * before it. That will show you all the words with something before the word you put in. For example, if you put in *暇 you’ll get all the words with stuff before 暇 in them. You’ll have to look for the ones that are pronounced ひま though, rather than the on’yomi or other pronunciations.

Example: Look up *暇

If you learn this group of words (and you will eventually, though it’ll happen automagically over time as you gain more experience), you’ll at least know a list of words that never get the rendaku treatment. There are others, as well, though, and they’re not quite as friendly.

Then again, just like with everything rendaku, there’s exceptions with the “never go rendaku” words too. Not so “never go rendaku” are you, rendaku? Just shows why this topic is so difficult to pin down.

Group #2: Rendaku Resistors

The above Group never gets all rendaku up in your face. This group of nouns just resists the rendaku treatment, where it is the exception when it happens.

According to a study done by Eric Rosen (“Systematic Irregularity in Japanese Rendaku: How the grammar mediates patterned lexical exceptions” … seriously, a mouthful of a title), these 8 nouns consist of 50% of all the cases of rendaku resisting words. That means if study these eight words and the combo-words they’re involved in, you can make educated guesses on some of the words you’re not sure about when you see them written in kanji.

• 草（くさ）＝　Grass　→　Resists rendaku 84% of the time
• 原（はら）＝　Field　→　Resists 57%
• 癖（くせ）＝　Habit→　Resists 75%
• 皮（かわ）＝　Skin　→　Resists 42%
• 先（さき）＝　Tip　→　Resists 100%
• 木（き）＝　Tree　→　Resists 61%
• 子（こ）＝　Child　→　Resists 38%
• 手（て）＝　Hand　→　Resists 75%

Now, there’s something interesting about the rendaku resisters. Their resistance occurs only in “short-short” compounds. That is, compounds that are two or less kana long (on both sides). When there is a long compound, these “rendaku resistant” words can no longer resist. For example:

常盤木（ときわぎ）＝　ときわ　＋　ぎ
You can see the first compound is three kana long. Thus, it is a “long-short” compound. Anything that’s not a short-short compound will not resist rendaku (if it is a rendaku resisting word).

But, when 木 is used in a short-short compound, things are totally different. Even though it doesn’t resist all the time, the percentage is much better (i.e. not 100% rate of rendaku like long compounds).

丸木（まるき）＝　Log
This is a short-short compound

本木（もとき）＝　Original Tree Trunk
もとき is a short-short compound (both sides are two or less kana long), and it is more resistnat.

生木（なまき）＝　Live Tree
Also resistant.

That being said, there are still short-short compounds for the rendaku resisting words that still can’t resist. It’s just that they don’t occur as often (though they still do occur).

山木（やまぎ）＝　Mountain Trees
Even though it’s a short-short compound, it can’t resist the rendaku (き becomes ぎ). There are exceptions, since it’s only rendaku resistant and not immune.

I’d say the most tricky ones are the resistant words. They tend to not go rendaku (if you had to bet, you’d at least have better than 50% odds most of the time, I suppose?) but they sometimes do as well. It’s a tricky business, but not something that’s too hard once you’ve studied Japanese for a while and you know a decent number of words.

Group #3: Rendaku Lovers

Then, there’s a group of nouns that love rendaku. They never resist, and you’ll almost always see them in the rendaku form if they are the second part of the word. This is Rosen’s short list of of words that make up 39% of all the occurrences of these rendaku loving nouns.

• 風呂（ふろ）＝　Bath　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 腹（はら）＝　Belly　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 船（ふね）＝　Boat　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 骨（ほね）＝　Bone　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 花（はな）＝　Flower　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 笛（ふえ）＝　Flute　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 金（かね）＝　Gold　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 口（くち）＝　Mouth　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 底（そこ）＝　Bottom/Sole　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 箱（はこ）＝　Box　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 紙（かみ）＝　Paper　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 人（ひと）＝　Person　→　100% Rendaku’d
• 形（かた）＝　Shape　→　100% Rendaku’d

Then, these ones are still Rendaku Lovers, but they don’t love rendaku quite as much as the previous list.

• 鳥（とり）＝　Bird　→　80% Rendaku’d
• 雲（くも）＝　Cloud　→　80% Rendaku’d
• 川（かわ）＝　River　→　61% Rendaku’d
• 玉（たま）＝　Ball　→　80% Rendaku’d

These words tend to be a little bit more reliable (at least compared to the rendaku resistors). Most of them are 100%, and the ones that aren’t 100% tend to be a lot closer (80% for all but one). If you take a look at these words, they should voice the rendaku every (or almost every) time.

戸口（とぐち）＝　Doorway

入り口（いりぐち）＝　Entrance

That being said, I found some exceptions to these rules (as in, some of the 100% ones aren’t 100%). There’s 悪口 (わるくち, which to be fair can also be written わるぐち) and there’s 仕口 (しくち, which isn’t a super common word, but you get my drift). There are others as well, but I think Rosen’s 100% list is pretty close, though I’d bring some of them down to around 90% (still close enough to make smart bets in my book).

Then Again, You Could Just Learn The Words

This is a huge amount of information. I never knew any of this until just recently and somehow got by just fine. I also doubt that anyone else learns about this either, and they somehow get by okay too. I think the above information is helpful, don’t get me wrong, but I think it’s more helpful for making guesses when you aren’t sure how to read a word written out in kanji.

Most likely, it’s just going to come down to experience. The more words you see the more natural rendaku will become. You’ll do it (or not do it) naturally without even thinking. Sometimes you’ll get caught up somewhere, but that’s why you have these rules to help you to guess more effectively.

Good luck with your rendaku endeavors. It’s overwhelming. It’s difficult. But it’s interesting as well, I think.

In this guide I’m going to show you how to learn and practice Namba Aruki, a walking style from the Edo period (1603-1868) that is said to be more efficient than how you walk right now. Sure, you’ll look like an idiot walking like this out in public, but who cares if you get to walk like a samurai, right?

How You Walk Right Now

Normal people walk by swinging their right arm and left foot at the same time and vice versa. When you do this, you’re twisting your upper body and hips an unnecessary amount. They’re actually going against each other here, squishing the side you’re stepping with.

It also causes you to push off using your feet with each step which means you’re using a tiny muscle to lift your entire body (this gets tiring). Normal walking is basically you falling forward over and over again. The only reason you don’t fall on your face every time you take a step is because you catch yourself with your foot, over and over again.

This is a lot of energy being spent!

How Namba Aruki Works

Namba Aruki on the other hand makes your movements more efficient. It will feel strange at first, but essentially you’ll be walking in a way that makes your upper body more stable, keeps your hips straight forward as you walk, makes you more controlled, and doesn’t require you to lift your entire body with your feet. This type of walk is good for people who do Japanese martial arts, wear kimonos and/or swords, and enjoy hiking. Most likely, the hiking part will be the most applicable to you. In fact, some of the theory behind Namba Aruki resembles the rest step which is used to climb up steep hills with very little effort at all.

Learning To Namba Aruki

We’re going to use a step by step program to make you a Namba Aruki master. This won’t happen in one hour, one day, or one week, but it will happen over time. If you practice this for around three months you should be able to see the difference and possibly be able to apply this walking style to your normal walking style (if you don’t want to look like a weirdo walking around town).

Step 1: Big Steps

The first step is to over-exaggerate your steps. This isn’t at all how you’ll be walking when after Namba Aruki becomes more comfortable, but it will teach your body the basic motions that it needs to know in order to get used to it.

To begin, You’ll be taking really big steps, almost like lunges. Put your hands on your hips, and do the following.

1. Step with your right foot.
2. Turn your hips towards your right leg, so it’s almost like you’re trying to face your upper body to the right. In reality, this will be straightening your upper body out so you’re facing straight forward. When you walk normally, your upper body would turn to the left. This is to counteract this though it’s a bit exaggerated right now.
3. Swing your elbows (hands still on your hips) to the right as well. This will help you to turn your body.
4. Step with your left foot and switch everything. Upper body should turn to the left (towards your left leg). Continue walking like this.

As for visuals, it should look something like this:

Make sure you’re really torquing your entire upper body to the side of your forward foot. This will help you to complete the next step. I’d recommend practicing this for a few days, at least. It will build the muscles necessary to do Namba Aruki properly if you don’t have them already. You might feel a little bit of soreness in your hip muscles (who knew they existed, right?). If you do, you’re doing things right.

Step 2: Swing Your Arms

Now we’re going to do the same thing as before, except this time you’re going to swing your arms. Since it’s Namba Aruki, you have to swing the same arm as the foot that’s forward. This will feel awkward at first, especially since you’ll be taking big steps still. This will be difficult to do, but it will make the next step easier. So, do exactly what you did in Step 1, except this time swing your arms.

Remember, same hand, same foot. Practice this for a few more days until it becomes comfortable.

Step 3: Bring It In

Now it’s time to make it a bit smaller so it’s more like normal walking. You still want to swing the same arms as the foot that’s forward, but don’t swing it too much. Nice and small, like normal walking (but Namba style).  Also turn your hips a little less too. Now that you’ve gotten used to this (and hopefully stretched your hips out) you can turn more subtly. The goal should be to turn your hips just enough so that they don’t actually move at all. There is a skill in doing this, for sure. When you do this in front of a mirror, your hips should always remain facing directly forward. Same with your shoulders. It’s as if your upper body doesn’t move that much at all.

You’ll also want to place each step before doing the next one. This means you aren’t “falling” forward as you would with normal walking. You’re stepping, placing, and then lifting your back foot to do your next step. Take it nice and slow at first, but as you get used to this you should feel a lot more stable when you’re walking. Each step is a piece of art. Place your foot solidly before moving on to the next step.

Step 4: Speed Up

[twocol_one]Once you’ve gotten this down, it’s time to speed up. While it’s going to be hard to do sprints in Namba style, it’s definitely possible to jog or even run once you get good at it. Practice at a normal walking speed at first, then slowly increase the speed as each level begins to feel “natural” (just like normal walking). Try to get up to a jogging speed and practice this for two or three months. You’ve been walking one way your entire life, so it will certainly take some practice to get to this point, but once you do you will begin to feel the rewards.

Step 5: Test It Out

Got a hike you want to go on? Have a long walk through downtown planned? Want to join the armies of old people who power walk through the mall before it opens? Now it’s your turn. After this walk has become natural feeling to you (and only after) come up with a test to see how well it works. Hikes are the best, I think, because you get all kinds of different elevations (it’s great for walking up hills and mountainsides). Either you’ll find you need more practice or you’ll find it’s a really nice way to walk for long distances, despite how silly it may look.

If you’re finding the Namba walk difficult, take a look at your hips. Make sure you’re not turning them too far (only step 1 and 2 are exaggerated). Your upper body should just remain facing forward at all times, and your hips and shoulders should be level. Check yourself in front of a mirror to see if any of these things are happening. If they are, correct them and practice some more.

If you actually do go through with the Namba Aruki practice regimen and you do this for a few months, be sure to let me know how it goes for you! I’m always interested in how these crazy theories pan out on other people besides myself.

Let the Namba Aruki revolution begin!

In America, 90% of Japanese teachers are women. That’s great, because women are good people too, but did you know that women have a particular (though somewhat subtle) way of speaking Japanese? Did you know that there are slight differences between the way that men and women talk?

Now, I should be clear. Gendered language (that’s what this is called) in Japanese is quite different from other languages. First of all, compared to languages like German or Spanish (and many others), it’s not as big of a deal. A big part of this is because Japanese gendered language isn’t a grammatical thing, where there is no choice. Dudes can speak more like gals and gals can speak more like dudes. Depending on how much they do this, they can sound odd, but not grammatically incorrect.

All that being said, though, it’s a good idea to learn the differences between feminine and masculine speech in Japanese so that you can sound more fluent and natural.

Before we do that, though, a little history.

Where Did Japanese Feminine Language Come From?

To look at the history of Japanese gendered language, we’ll actually have to (mainly) look at feminine form. Why? Because really, this is (mainly) the only one that’s really changing. It’s also the one that’s focused on the most by “intellectual” types, who turn out to be not all that intellectual at all.

If you ask a Japanese person (even the scholarly types) they’ll probably tell you that the “tradition” of gendered language (or more specifically, feminine Japanese language) came before time itself (or, if they’re more specific, around the 4th Century AD). Turns out, this isn’t true and was probably just made up during the very nationalistic time after World War II when Japan was attempting to re-figure out what it means to be “Japanese.” Endo (a big expert in Japanese gendered language) found that while there are differences in speech back during this time, it was based off of social status, not male or female… so, somebody’s lying, and I’m guessing it’s not Endo.

The first time gendered language really started popping up was actually after the Meiji Era had begun (when Japan went through modernization), which is pretty recent. This is when you first start to get high class and scholarly male types complaining about schoolgirls speaking in an “unpleasant,” “strange,” and “vulgar” way. Turns out, these “vulgar” ways schoolgirls started talking also happens to be pretty similar to the gendered language we see in Japanese today. So, it’s not so much a “tradition” as it is a “kind-of-recent-phenomenon,” not to mention one that the Japanese people didn’t like before (but now claim to be a tradition).

Fast forward a few years when these schoolgirls are all grown up. Suddenly this is the norm, and combining this along with the “Good wife, wise mother” push going on at the time, plenty of print media claiming it’s a thing, and more, feminine language (i.e. onna kotoba / 女言葉) becomes official and no longer “vulgar” (oh, and did I mention this is a tradition before time itself?? *Cough cough*).

So, gendered language is really a modern thing – and even to this day it’s changing fast. There are some things, though, that I’d consider “staples” of gendered language. They’ll probably hang out a while, though later on you’ll see some exceptions to the rule. Let’s take a look at the things that make feminine Japanese feminine and masculine Japanese masculine.

Differences In Sentence Enders

One thing you’ll notice right off the bad about gendered language is that gendered language in Japanese isn’t all that difficult. It’s really only a few things you have to learn (for the most part), and once you’ve learned them, you’ll be A-okay. That being said, a lot of people don’t learn about this because it’s either a) so natural for the teacher they don’t even think about or b) it doesn’t really matter because you learn neutral / formal Japanese, which tends to be pretty gender neutral.

Sentence enders are one of the two main ways that gendered language shows up in Japanese. There will be some crossover, which is okay (you won’t be ostracized for using a feminine sentence ender or vice versa), but in general during casual speech you’ll want to use the right sentence ender so you don’t sound… odd. P.S. You’ll need to know how to read hiragana and some kanji for this table (use Rikaichan if kanji’s a problem)

Now, you’ll notice that the masculine form tends (more often) to be neutral form – that’s because originally sentence enders were all the same between both men and women. In the book Vicarious Language, Miyako Inoue compares two literary works, Ukiyoburo (1813, aka pre-Meiji Japanese language) and Sanshiro (1909, aka modern Japanese language). She shows how sentence enders changed over the course of approximately 100 years. The column on the far right is the one you want to pay attention to if you’re learning Japanese, though the chart as a whole is very interesting too, I think.

M = Masculine
F = Feminine
B = Both

Just remember that there are exceptions to all rules, especially Japanese language related ones. The above tables aren’t always going to be right in every single situation, but it’s a good jumping off point when you’re studying Japanese.

Besides these sentence enders, there’s also another type of sentence ender that deserves some focus, and that is “asking questions.” Let’s do that now.

Differences In Asking Questions

Asking questions in Japanese isn’t just adding a か to the end of a sentence and calling it good. Well, for a while it is, but eventually you grow out of that and learn that there are other ways to ask questions. These other ways also happen to be both masculine and feminine forms of Japanese, so you don’t want to get them confused too often if you can help it.

You can see some of the differences between guys and gals, and also a bit how it compares with the first table that does sort of the same thing. All this just for asking questions, too. Good thing there actually isn’t that much more to learn about gendered language for you to become a Japanese gendered language expert of sorts.

Differences In “I” And “You”

“I” and “You” are the last big differences between men and women in terms of how they speak. In fact, most likely, this is the only thing Japanese learners learn about gendered language, though usually just in passing. This explanation should hopefully be pretty thorough for you:

So, you can probably see now that there’s a lot of variety in the ways in which you can refer to yourself or someone else, and a lot of the rules are there to be broken (like ぼく, for example). I’d say that these “I” and “You” words are the main way that women are breaking the “gendered language” rules as of late – it’s definitely a way for women to empower themselves, which is interesting (and wouldn’t be possible if Japanese gendered language was grammatical).

With Japanese Gendered Language You Should Remember…

To be honest, gendered language in Japanese isn’t a huge deal. People often freak out and think “omgomgomg, am I speaking like a girl??” and go all crazy. There’s really not that much difference between the two. Just a few big things to know, and then you can move on to learn something more important. Sure, these things will help you to be more fluent, and help you to be a better Japanese speaker, but a lot of these you’ll learn automatically while some things you may end up having to change. Good news is, there’ll never be a lot of things to change. Japanese gendered language is quite simple, considering what it could be.

So, here’s some basic things to remember about gendered language that should help you on your way.

1. The purpose of feminine speech is to make female speech sound “softer” and more “submissive.” It might be hard to tell the difference when you’re just starting out, but after a while you should be able to know when something is “soft” or “hard” in Japanese. If you need to guess, choose the one that fits you best.
2. The most important set of things to know is probably the “I” and “You” section. If you can learn that, I bet you’ll be just fine.
3. Try to pick out gendered language in materials you’re using while you’re studying them. Just by actively searching it out, you’ll learn a lot more and become comfortable with it a lot quicker.
4. Gendered language pretty much only pops up in casual speaking … not in writing (unless someone is writing someone actually speaking in a book or something, then there’ll be gendered language present).
5. Most likely you’re learning gender neutral Japanese, especially if you’re a beginner. You probably don’t have to worry about gendered language stuff until you’re more like an intermediate level student of Japanese, I’d say.

To help you out, though, I’ve put together this gendered language cheatsheet for you to download and use at your own pleasure. I’m guessing you won’t need it all that much, being the very smart hoopy frood you are, but just in case… here it is.

Gendered Language Cheatsheet (PDF)

If you remember these things, you should be fine… that is, unless gendered language changes anytime soon, and it just might, too!

Gendered Language, Ever Changing

Gendered language came into existence in less than a hundred years, so what makes you think it won’t change just as fast? While gendered language was originally something popularized by schoolgirls speaking “improperly,” it’s come to be something that separates men and women, in a way. Although not the case all the time, feminine language tends to put women down a little bit. It’s supposed to make them sound more submissive, which is probably a little bit sexist, even if nobody really means it for realsies.

Women are using gendered speech to empower themselves. For example, women are using きみ to talk down to men because men have used it to speak to women first. ぼく, too, is sort of a form of self-expression, I’d say. Things will change somewhat fast, I think, and then this post will become unimportant. It won’t be tomorrow, it won’t be next week… but I think someday gendered language will become virtually nonexistent in Japanese.

Until that day comes, though, I hope you find this how-to guide useful and sound like whatever gender you want to sound like.